History and Tourism in Zimbabwe, Culture and People of Zimbabwe: Art and Craft, Rain forest and National Parks, Wildlife and Culture: Sampson Jerry, Anderson Jones, Morgan Koumana, Simion Tinge, Maklele Odinga: 9781522819264: ya.ru: Books

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Zimbabwean jazz, sungura, Tuku music, Chimurenga music, etc. In June, Mugabe barred humanitarian groups from providing aid in the country—a drastic move that aid organizations estimated would deny about two million people much-needed assistance. Walls said Thatcher had not replied to his request. Zimbabwe has won Eight Olympic medals, one in field hockey at the boycotted in Moscow.

In 1983-84, the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress dissidents. The adoption of the name Zimbabwe and citizens' identity as Zimbabweans, functioned as a symbol of continuity with the past.

The Culture Of Zimbabwe

In the 2000s Zimbabwe's economy began to deteriorate due to various factors, including, the imposition of economic sanctions by western countries led by the United Kingdom, and also due to wide spread corruption in government. Economic instability caused a lot of Zimbabweans to move overseas or to neighboring countries. Prior to its recognized independence as Zimbabwe in 1980, the nation had been known by several names:and. Stoneage paintings by the San located nearZimbabwe. Prior to the arrival of Bantu speakers in present-day Zimbabwe the region was populated by ancestors of the. The first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion around 2000 years ago. These Bantu speakers were the makers of early Iron Age pottery belonging to the Silver Leaves or Matola tradition, third to fifth centuries A. This tradition was part of the eastern stream of Bantu expansion sometimes called Kwale which originated west of the Great Lakes, spreading to the coastal regions of southeastern Kenya zimbabwe culture and history north eastern Tanzania, and then southwards to Mozambique, south eastern Zimbabwe and Natal. More substantial in numbers in Zimbabwe were the makers of the and Gokomere ceramic wares, of the fourth century A. Their early Iron Age ceramic tradition belonged to the highlands facies of the eastern stream, which moved inland to Malawi and Zimbabwe. Imports of beads have been found at Gokomere and Ziwa sites, possibly in return for gold exported to the coast. A later phase of the Gokomere culture was the Zhizo in southern Zimbabwe. Zhizo communities settled in the Shashe-Limpopo area in the tenth century. Their capital there was Schroda just across the Limpopo River from Zimbabwe. Many fragments of ceramic figurines have been recovered from there, figures of animals and birds, and also fertility dolls. The inhabitants produced ivory bracelets and other ivory goods. Imported beads found there and at other Zhizo sites, are evidence of trade, probably of ivory and skins, with traders on the Indian Ocean coast. Pottery belonging to a western stream of Bantu expansion sometimes called Kalundu has been found at sites in northeastern Zimbabwe, dated from the seventh century. The western stream originated in the same area as the eastern stream: both belong to the same style system, called by Phillipson the Chifumbadze system, which has general acceptance by archaeologists. The terms eastern and western streams represent the expansion zimbabwe culture and history the Bantu speaking peoples in terms of their culture. Another question is the branches of the Bantu languages which they spoke. Their language, whatever it was, was superseded by the ancestral Shona languages, although Ehret says that a set of Nyasa words occur in central Shona dialects today. The evidence that the ancestral Shona speakers came from South Africa is that the ceramic styles associated with Shona speakers in Zimbabwe from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries zimbabwe culture and history be traced back to western stream Kalunndu pottery styles in South Africa. Although the western stream Kalundu tradition was ancestral to Shona ceramic wares, the closest relationships of the ancestral Shona language according to many linguists were with a southern division of eastern Bantu — such languages as the southeastern languages,Nyasa and Makwa. While it may well be the zimbabwe culture and history that the people of the western stream spoke a language belonging to a wider Eastern Bantu division, it is a puzzle which remains to be resolved that they spoke a language most closely related to the languages just mentioned, all of which are today spoken in southeastern Africa. After the Shona speaking people moved into the present day Zimbabwe many different dialects developed over time in the different parts of the country. It is believed that Kalanga speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Kalanga states. The was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold, and zimbabwe culture and history for cloth and glass. From about 1250 until 1450, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the. This Kalanga state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, which survives to zimbabwe culture and history day at the ruins of the kingdom's capital of. From circa zimbabwe culture and history, Zimbabwe gave way to the. This Kalanga state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central. It is known by many names including thealso known as Mwenemutapa was known for its gold trade routes with and the Portuguese. However, settlers destroyed the trade and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century. As a direct response to Portuguese aggression in the interior, a new Kalanga state emerged called the. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi which means destroyers removed the Portuguese from the Zimbabwe plateau by force of arms. The Rozwi continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding guns to its arsenal and developing a professional army to protect its trade routes and conquests. Around 1821, the general of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled from King and created his own clan, the. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into theleaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the. When converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward. By 1838, the Rozwi Empire, along with the other petty Shona states were conquered by the Ndebele and reduced to. After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known asestablishing as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with zimbabwe culture and historysimilar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and, following a violent power struggle, was succeeded by his son. Main articles: and In the 1880s, the British arrived with '. In 1898, the name was adopted. In 1888, British Cecil Rhodes obtained a concession for from of the peoples. Cecil Rhodes presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a to his overand its subject states such as. Rhodes sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the andthen known as 'Zambesia'. In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties, Cecil Rhodes promoted the colonisation of the region's land, with British control over labour as well as precious metals and other mineral resources. In 1898, '' became the official denotation for the region south of the Zambezi, which later became Zimbabwe. Southern Rhodesia stamp: princesses and on the 1947 royal tour of South Africa Southern Rhodesia became a in October 1923, subsequent to a referendum held the previous year. Many served on behalf of the United Kingdom duringmainly in the against forces in. In 1953, in the face of African opposition, Britain consolidated the two colonies of Rhodesia with now in the ill-fated which was dominated by Southern Rhodesia. As colonial rule was ending throughout the continent and as African-majority governments assumed control in neighbouring and inthe Rhodesian government led by made a from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The United Kingdom deemed this an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. The white minority government declared itself a republic in 1970. A civil war ensued, with 's and 's using assistance from the governments of and. Although Smith's declaration was not recognised by the United Kingdom nor any other foreign power, Southern Rhodesia dropped the designation Southern, and claimed nation status as the in 1970 although this was not recognised internationally. The government held independence celebrations in Rufaro stadium inthe capital. Lordthe lastwatched asgave a farewell salute and the Rhodesian Signal Corps played. Many foreign dignitaries also attended, including Prime Minister of India, President of Nigeria, President of Zambia, President of Botswana, and Prime Minister of Australia, representing the. Mugabe's government used part of the money to buy newspaper companies owned by South Africans, increasing the government's control over the media. The rest went to training students in Nigerian universities, government workers in the Administrative Staff College of Nigeria inand soldiers in the Nigerian Defence Academy in. See also: Mugabe's government changed the capital's name from Salisbury to on 18 April 1982 in celebration of the second anniversary of independence. The government renamed the main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, in honour of. Reverend served as the first President. In government amended the Constitution in 1987 to provide for an Executive President and abolished the office of Prime Minister. The constitutional changes came into effect on 1 January 1988 with Robert Mugabe as President. The bicameral had a directly elected House of Assembly and an indirectly elected Senate, partly made up of tribal chiefs. The Constitution established two separate voters rolls, one for the black majority, who had 80% of the seats in Zimbabwe culture and history, and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities, such aspeople of mixed race, and Asians, who held 20%. The government amended the Constitution in zimbabwe culture and history, eliminating the voter rolls and replacing the white seats with seats filled by nominated members. In 1990 the government abolished the Senate and increased the House of Assembly's membership to include members nominated by the President. While Western media outlets praised Mugabe's efforts at reconciliation with thetension soon developed. On 17 March 1980, after several unsuccessful assassination attempts Mugabe asked Walls, Why are your men trying to kill me. Walls replied, If they were my men you would be dead. Walls said Thatcher had not replied to his request. On 12 August British government officials denied that they had not responded, sayingDeputy Governor of Salisbury, told Walls on 3 March that Thatcher would not annul the election. Minister of Information said the government would not be held ransom by racial misfits and told all those Europeans who do not accept the new order to pack their bags. He also said the government continued to consider taking legal or administrative action against Walls. Mugabe, returning from a visit with United States President in New York City, said, One thing is quite clear—we are not going to have disloyal characters in our society. Walls returned to Zimbabwe after the interview, telling Peter Hawthorne of magazine, To stay away at this time would have appeared like an admission of guilt. Mugabe drafted legislation that would exile Walls from Zimbabwe for life and Walls moved to South Africa. Ethnic divisions soon came back to the forefront of national politics. Mugabe fired Nkomo and his closest aides from the cabinet. Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and democratic sentiments, the government kept in force a state of emergency. This gave the government widespread powers under the Law and Order Maintenance Act, including the right to detain persons without charge which it used quite widely. In 1983 to 1984 the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress members of the Ndebele tribe. The pacification campaign, known as the Gukuruhundi, or strong wind, resulted in at least 20,000 civilian deaths perpetrated by an elite, North Korean-trained brigade, known in Zimbabwe as the. The majority gave Mugabe the opportunity to start making changes to the constitution, including those with regard to land restoration. The government began further amending the constitution. The judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticised the first amendments enacted in April 1991 because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the government. During the 1990s students, trade unionists, and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government. Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers also criticised the government during this time. In 1992 police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994 widespread industrial unrest weakened the economy. In 1996 civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues. On 9 December 1997 a national strike paralysed the country. Mugabe was panicked by demonstrations by ex-combatants, war veterans, who had been the heart of incursions 20 years earlier in the Bush War. He agreed to pay them large gratuities and pensions, which proved to be a wholly unproductive and unbudgeted financial commitment. The discontent with the government spawned draconian government crackdowns which in turn started to destroy both the fabric of the state and of society. This in turn brought with it further discontent within the population. Thus a vicious downward spiral commenced. Although many whites had left Zimbabwe after independence, mainly for neighbouring South Africa, those who remained continued to wield disproportionate control of some sectors zimbabwe culture and history the economy, especially agriculture. In the late-1990s whites accounted for less than 1% of the population but owned 70% of. Mugabe raised this issue of land ownership by white farmers. In a calculated move, he began forcible land redistribution, which brought the government into headlong conflict with the International Monetary Fund. Amid a severe drought in the region, the police and military were instructed not to stop the invasion of white-owned farms by the so-called 'war veterans' and youth militia. This has led to a mass migration of White Zimbabweans out of Zimbabwe. At present almost no arable land is in the possession of white farmers. Controls were placed on wages, prices and massive increases in government spending resulting in significant. This experiment met with very mixed results and Zimbabwe fell further behind the first world and unemployment. Some market reforms in the 1990s were attempted. A 40 per cent devaluation of the was allowed to occur and price and wage controls were removed. These policies also failed at that time. Growth, employment, wages, and social service spending contracted sharply, inflation did not improve, the deficit remained well above target, and many industrial firms, notably in textiles and footwear, closed in response to increased competition and high real interest rates. The incidence of poverty in the country increased during this time. See also: However, Zimbabwe began experiencing a period of considerable political and economic upheaval in 1999. Among its elements, the new constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorised government seizure of white-owned land. The referendum was handily defeated. Shortly thereafter, the government, through a loosely organised group of war veterans,some of the so-called war veterans judging from their age were not war veterans as they were too young to have fought in the chimurenga, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterised by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees. Since the 2002 election, Zimbabwe has suffered further economic difficulty and zimbabwe culture and history political chaos. He was subsequently arrested and put on trial on treason charges. This crippled his control of party affairs and raised questions about his competence. It also catalysed a major split within the party. In 2004 he was acquitted, but not until after suffering serious abuse and mistreatment in prison. In mid-2004, vigilantes loyal to Mr. Tsvangirai began attacking members who were mostly loyal to Ncube, climaxing in a September raid on the party's Harare headquarters in which the security director was nearly thrown to his death. An internal party inquiry later established that aides to Tsvangirai had tolerated, if not endorsed, the violence. Divisive as the violence was, it was a debate over the rule of law that set off the party's final break-up in November 2005. These division severely weakened the opposition. In addition the government employed its own operatives to both spy on zimbabwe culture and history side and to undermine each side via acts of espionage. As Senate elections approached further opposition splits occurred. Ncube's supporters argued that the M. When party leaders voted on the issue, Ncube's side narrowly won, but Mr. Tsvangirai declared that as president of the party he was not bound by the majority's decision. Again the opposition was weakened. As a result, the elections for a new Senate in November 2005 were largely boycotted by the opposition. Mugabe's party won 24 of the 31 constituencies where elections were held amid low voter turnout. Again, evidence surfaced of voter intimidation and fraud. It was officially billed to rid urban areas of illegal structures, illegal business enterprises, and criminal activities. Thousands of families were left unprotected in the open in the middle of Zimbabwe's winter. The operation continued into July 2005, when the government began a program to provide housing for the newly displaced. The operation was the latest manifestation of a massive human rights problem that has been going on for years, said Amnesty International. As of September 2006, housing construction fell far short of demand, and there were reports that beneficiaries were mostly civil servants and ruling party loyalists, not those displaced. The government campaign of forced evictions continued in 2006, albeit on a lesser scale. In September 2005 Mugabe signed constitutional amendments that reinstituted a national senate abolished in 1987 and that nationalised all land. This converted all ownership zimbabwe culture and history into leases. The amendments also ended the right of landowners to challenge government expropriation of land in the courts and marked the end of any hope of returning any land that had been hitherto grabbed by armed land invasions. Elections for the senate in November resulted in a victory for the government. In addition to low turnout there was widespread government intimidation. The early months of 2006 were marked by food shortages and mass hunger. The sheer extremity of the siltation was revealed by the fact that in the courts, state witnesses said they were too weak from hunger to testify. The event garnered an international outcry and was considered particularly brutal and extreme, even considering the reputation of Mugabe's government. We are very concerned by reports of continuing brutal attacks on opposition activists in Zimbabwe and call on the government to stop all acts of violence and intimidation against opposition activists, said Kolawole Olaniyan, Director of 's Africa Programme. The economy has shrunk by 50% from 2000 zimbabwe culture and history 2007. In September 2007 the inflation rate was put at almost 8,000%, the world's highest. There are frequent power and water outages. Harare's drinking water became unreliable in 2006 and as a consequence dysentery and cholera swept the city in December 2006 and January 2007. Unemployment in formal jobs is running at a record 80%. There was widespread hunger, manipulated by the government so that opposition strongholds suffer the most. Availability of bread was severely constrained after a poor wheat harvest and the closure of all bakeries. The country, which used to be one of Africa's richest, became one of its poorest. Many observers now view the country as a ''. The settlement of the brought back Zimbabwe's substantial military commitment, although some troops remain to secure the mining assets under their control. With all this and the forced and violent removal of white farmers in a brutal land redistribution program, Mugabe has earned himself widespread scorn from the international arena. The regime has managed to cling to power by creating wealthy enclaves for government ministers, and senior party members. For example, Borrowdale Brook, a suburb of Harare is an oasis of wealth and privilege. It features mansions, manicured lawns, full shops with fully stocked shelves containing an abundance of fruit and vegetables, big cars and a golf club give is the home to President Mugabe's out-of-town retreat. Zimbabwe's bakeries shut down in October 2007 and supermarkets warned that they would have no bread for the foreseeable future due to collapse in wheat production after the seizure of white-owned farms. The ministry of agriculture has also blamed power shortages for the wheat shortfall, saying that electricity cuts have affected irrigation and halved crop yields per acre. On 4 December 2007, The United States imposed travel sanctions against 38 people with ties to President Mugabe because they played a central role in the regime's escalated human rights abuses. While German chancellor criticised Mugabe with her public comments, the leaders of other African countries offered him statements of support. One foreign reporter witnessed hundreds of children at Hatcliffe Extension Primary School in Epworth, 12 miles west of Harare, writing in the dust on the floor because they had no exercise books or pencils. The high school exam system unravelled in 2007. Corruption has crept into the system and may explain why in January 2007 thousands of pupils received no marks for subjects they had entered, while others were deemed excellent in subjects they had not sat. However as of late the education system has recovered and is still considered the best in Southern Africa. Main articles: and held a presidential election along with a of 29 March. As no candidate received an outright majority in the first round, a second round was held on 27 June 2008 between Tsvangirai with 47. Tsvangirai withdrew from the second round a week before it was scheduled to take place, citing violence against his party's supporters. The second round went ahead, despite widespread criticism, and led to victory for Mugabe. Because of Zimbabwe's dire economic situation the election was expected to provide President Mugabe with his toughest electoral challenge to date. Mugabe's opponents were critical of the handling of the electoral process, and the government was accused of planning to rig the election; said that the election was likely to be deeply flawed. After the first round, but before the counting was completed, Jose Marcos Barrica, the head of the observer mission, described the election as a peaceful and credible expression of the will of the people of Zimbabwe. No official results were announced for more than a month after the first round. An independent projection placed Tsvangirai in the lead, but without the majority needed to avoid a second round. Despite Tsvangirai's continuing claims to have won a first round majority, he refused to participate in the second round. On 22 June 2008, Tsvangirai announced that he was withdrawing from the run-off, describing it as a violent sham and saying that his supporters risked being killed if they voted for him. The second round nevertheless went ahead as planned with Mugabe as the only actively participating candidate, although Tsvangirai's name remained on the ballot. Mugabe won the second round by an overwhelming margin and was sworn zimbabwe culture and history for another term as President on 29 June. The to the second round have varied. The United States and states of the European Union have called for increased sanctions. On 11 July, the voted zimbabwe culture and history impose sanctions on the Zimbabwe; Russia and China vetoed. The African Union has called for a government of national unity. Preliminary talks to set up conditions for began between leading negotiators from both parties on 10 July, and on 22 July, the three party leaders met for the first time in to express their support for a negotiated settlement of disputes arising out of the presidential and parliamentary elections. Negotiations between the parties officially began on 25 Zimbabwe culture and history and are currently proceeding with very few details released from the negotiation teams inas coverage by the media is barred from the premises where the negotiations are taking place. The talks were mediated by South African President. On 15 September 2008, the leaders of the 14-member witnessed the signing of the power-sharing agreement, brokered by South African leader. With symbolic handshake and warm smiles at the Rainbow Towers hotel, in Harare, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed the deal to end the violent political crisis. Up to 150 of the estimated 30,000 illegal miners were shot from helicopter gunships. In 2008 some Zimbabwean lawyers and opposition politicians from claimed that Shiri was the prime mover behind the military assaults on illegal diggers in the diamond mines in the east of Zimbabwe. Estimates of the death toll by mid-December range from 83 reported by thebased on a request for burial ground, to 140 estimated by the then opposition party. On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as the. By 2009 inflation had peaked at 500 billion % per year under the Mugabe government and the Zimbabwe currency was worthless. In 2013 the Mugabe government won an election which The Zimbabwe culture and history described as rigged, doubled the size of the civil service and embarked on. By 2016 the economy had collapsed, took place throughout the country and the finance minister admitted Right now we literally have nothing. There was the introduction of bond notes to literally fight the biting cash crisis and liquidity crunch. Cash became scarce on the market in the year 2017. On Wednesday November 15, 2017. The military stated that the president was safe. The military placed tanks around government buildings in Harare and blocked the main road to the airport. Public opinion in the capital favored the dictators removal although they were uncertain about his replacement with another dictatorship. He had recently been sacked by Mr Mugabe so that the path could be smoothed for to replace her husband. A Zimbabwean army officer, Major General Sibusiso Moyo, went on television to say the military was targeting criminals around President Mugabe but not actively removing the president from power. However the head of the described it as such. Ugandan writer Charles Onyango-Obbo stated on If it looks like a coup, walks like a coup and quacks like a coup, then it's a coup. Naunihal Singh, an assistant professor at the U. Naval War College and author of a book on military coups, described the situation in Zimbabwe as a coup. He tweeted that 'The President is safe' is a classic coup catch-phrase of such an event. Robert Mugabe resigned 21 November 2017. Second Vice-President became the Acting President. Ruling party won the majority of seats in parliament, incumbent President was declared the winner after receiving 50. The opposition accused the government of rigging the vote. In subsequent riots by supporters, the army opened fire and killed three people, while three others died of their injuries the following day. An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion. An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion: 77—8. The Archaeology of Southernmost Africa from c. Bantu-Speaking People in Southern Africa' in Obenga edLes Peuples Bantu. Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection. Bantu-Speaking People in Southern Africa. An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion: 69—84. Continuity and divergence in the Bantu languages: perspectives from a lexicostatistic study. Comparative Bantu: an introduction to the comparative linguistics and prehistory of the Bantu languages. Cladistic analysis of Bantu Languages. Bantu language trees reflect the spread of farming across sub- Saharan Africa. Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career. A New History of Southern Africa, Second Edition, 1993. Empire: The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present. Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912. Nigerian Foreign Policy Under Military Rule, 1966—1999. Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997. Dictionary of Politics: Selected American and Foreign Political and Legal Terms, 1992. Southern African Political History: A chronological of key political events from independence to mid-1997, 1999. Archived from on 28 September 2007. Archived from on 4 November 2012. Archived from on 9 January 2008. Archived from on 5 April 2008. Archived from on 27 May 2008. Archived from on 19 May 2008. Archived from on 21 July 2010. Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe. A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008 Weaver Press, 2009.

A sharp drop in mortality rates and longer life expectancy between 1960 and 1992 meant that almost sixty-three percent of the population sixteen to thirty-four years of age. An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion: 77—8. On September 1, 1977 a detailed Anglo-American plan was put forward with proposals for majority rule, neutrally administered with pre-independence elections, a democratic constitution and the formation of an integrated army. Precedence was given to customary Marriage, Family, and Kinship Marriage. Farm workers winnow soya beans. But in Zimbabwe, blackouts are quite frequent and random, and when they occur, they can last for up to 3 hours or even more.